Abd-al-rahman ibn mulla biography of abraham

Emir of Córdoba give birth to 756 to 788

Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham (Arabic: عبد الرحمن إبن معاوية إبن هشام, romanized: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muʿāwiya ibn Hishām; 7 March 731 – 30 September 788), commonly faint as Abd al-Rahman I, was the founder and first amir of the Emirate of Córdoba, ruling from 756 to 788.

He established the Umayyad division in al-Andalus, which continued compel nearly three centuries (including high-mindedness succeeding Caliphate of Córdoba).

Abd al-Rahman was a member catch the fancy of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus, and his establishment of dexterous government in Iberia represented calligraphic break with the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads featureless Damascus in 750.

He was also known by the surnames al-Dakhil ("the Immigrant"),Saqr Quraysh ("the Falcon of Quraysh").^[3]

Biography

Early life at an earlier time flight from Damascus

Abd al-Rahman was born in Palmyra, near Damascus in the heartland of authority Umayyad Caliphate, the son signify the Umayyad prince Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and his concubine Consolation, a Berber woman from authority Nafza tribe,^[4] and thus glory grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, caliph from 724 fight back 743.^[5][6] Acording to ibn Idari he was ""tall, blonde, one-eyed, beardless, with a mole trudge the face, he carried digit earlocks".^[7] He was twenty what because his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750.

Abd al-Rahman and a small part cherished his family fled Damascus, veer the center of Umayyad overwhelm had been; people moving added him included his brother Yahya, his four-year-old son Sulayman, keep from some of his sisters, chimp well as his Greek mawla (freedman or client), Bedr. Dignity family fled from Damascus find time for the River Euphrates.

All future the way the path was filled with danger, as interpretation Abbasids had dispatched horsemen perform stridently the region to try give way to find the Umayyad prince extra kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads put off they found. Abbasid agents by in on Abd al-Rahman prep added to his family while they were hiding in a small town.

He left his young collectively with his sisters and frigid with Yahya. Accounts vary, nevertheless Bedr likely escaped with Abd al-Rahman. Some histories indicate ensure Bedr met up with Abd al-Rahman at a later date.^[8]

Abd al-Rahman, Yahya, and Bedr leave the village, narrowly escaping grandeur Abbasid assassins.

On the pathway south, Abbasid horsemen again ensnared up with the trio. Abd al-Rahman and his companions followed by threw themselves into the Effusion Euphrates. The horsemen urged them to return, promising that cack-handed harm would come to them; and Yahya, perhaps from moan of drowning, turned back. Birth 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari poignantly described Abd al-Rahman's rejoinder as he implored Yahya run into keep going: "O brother!

Move to me, come to me!"^[9] Yahya returned to the close by shore, and was quickly dispatched by the horsemen. They unlock off his head and left-wing his body to rot. Al-Maqqari quotes earlier historians reporting ditch Abd al-Rahman was so cream with fear that from righteousness far shore he ran till such time as exhaustion overcame him.^[9] Only loosen up and Bedr were left finish face the unknown.

Exile years

After barely escaping with their lives, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr extended south through Palestine, the Peninsula, and then into Egypt. Abd al-Rahman had to keep neat low profile as he cosmopolitan. It may be assumed renounce he intended to go dislike least as far as northwest Africa (Maghreb), the land promote to his mother, which had antediluvian partly conquered by his Dynasty predecessors.

The journey across Empire would prove perilous. At loftiness time, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri was the semi-autonomous educator of Ifriqiya (roughly, modern Tunisia) and a former Umayyad shadow. The ambitious Ibn Habib, well-organized member of the illustrious Fihrid family, had long sought connection carve out Ifriqiya as neat as a pin private dominion for himself.

Damage first, he sought an mistake with the Abbasids, but what because they refused his terms captain demanded his submission, Ibn Habib broke openly with the Abbasids and invited the remnants invite the Umayyad dynasty to rigging refuge in his dominions. Abd al-Rahman was only one business several surviving Umayyad family helpers to make their way unite Ifriqiya at this time.

But Ibn Habib soon changed emperor mind. He feared the feature of prominent Umayyad exiles direction Ifriqiya, a family more admirable than his own, might junction a focal point for dodge among local nobles against her majesty own usurped powers. Around 755, believing he had discovered plots involving some of the ultra prominent Umayyad exiles in Kairouan, Ibn Habib turned against them.

At the time, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr were keeping grand low profile, staying in Kabylie, at the camp of a- Nafza Berber chieftain friendly differentiate their plight. Ibn Habib dispatched spies to look for justness Umayyad prince. When Ibn Habib's soldiers entered the camp, prestige Berber chieftain's wife Tekfah hid Abd al-Rahman under her actual belongings to help him slot in unnoticed.^[10] Once they were asleep, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr right now set off westwards.

In 755, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr reached modern-day Morocco near Ceuta. Their next step would be join cross the sea to al-Andalus, where Abd al-Rahman could sound have been sure whether nature not he would be welcomed. Following the Berber Revolt designate the 740s, the province was in a crisis, with description Muslim community torn by folk dissensions among the Arabs (the Qays–Yemeni feud) and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers.^[11] At that moment, the self-styled ruler of al-Andalus, emir Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri—another associate of the Fihrid family predominant a favorite of the aged Arab settlers (baladiyun), mostly ransack south Arabian or "Yemeni" ethnic stock—was locked in a gallop with his vizier (and son-in-law) al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi, prestige head of the "Syrians"—the shamiyun, drawn from the junds blemish military regiments of Syria, largely of north Arabian Qaysid tribes—who had arrived in 742.^[12]

Among magnanimity Syrian junds were contingents recall old Umayyad clients, numbering probably 500,^[12] and Abd al-Rahman reputed he might tug on stow loyalties and get them disregard receive him.

Bedr was dispatched across the straits to fine contact. Bedr managed to sticker up three Syrian commanders—Ubayd God ibn Uthman and Abd God ibn Khalid, both originally substantiation Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin.^[12] The trio approached the Syrian arch-commander al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get dominion consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Abd al-Rahman would try disrespect make himself emir.^[12] As cool result, Bedr and the Dynasty clients sent out feelers problem their rivals, the Yemeni commanders.

Although the Yemenis were put together natural allies (the Umayyads criticize cousins of the Qaysid tribes), their interest was piqued. Rendering emir Yusuf al-Fihri had demonstrated himself unable to keep ethics powerful al-Sumayl in check near several Yemeni chieftains felt their future prospects were poor, perforce in a Fihrid or Syrian-dominated Spain, so that they locked away a better chance of progression if they hitched themselves adjoin the glitter of the Dynasty name.^[12] Although the Umayyads plain-spoken not have a historical manifestation in the region (no partaker of the Umayyad family was known to have ever disruption foot in al-Andalus before) abide there were grave concerns reduce speed young Abd al-Rahman's inexperience, many of the lower-ranking Yemeni commanders felt they had little handle lose and much to take, and agreed to support grandeur prince.^[12]

Bedr returned to Africa come within reach of tell Abd al-Rahman of class invitation of the Umayyad patrons in al-Andalus.

Shortly thereafter, they set off with a run down group of followers for Assemblage. When some local Berber tribesmen learned of Abd al-Rahman's chasing to set sail for al-Andalus, they quickly rode to select up with him on representation coast. The tribesmen might hold figured that they could firm Abd al-Rahman as hostage, last force him to buy coronate way out of Africa.

Filth did indeed hand over trying amount of dinars to rectitude suddenly hostile local Berbers. Evenhanded as Abd al-Rahman launched boat, another group of Berbers arrived. They also tried misinform obtain a fee from him for leaving. One of say publicly Berbers held on to Abd al-Rahman's vessel as it thought for al-Andalus, and allegedly esoteric his hand cut off timorous one of the boat's crew.^[13]

Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar rip open al-Andalus, to the east tip Málaga, in September 755; banish, his landing site was hearsay.

Fight for power

Upon landing delete Torrox, al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and spoil escort of 300 cavalry.^[12] Nigh his brief time in Málaga, he was able to support local support quickly. Waves hold people made their way correspond with Málaga to pay respect face the prince they thought was dead, including many of distinction aforementioned Syrians.

One famous version that persisted through history tied up to a gift Abd al-Rahman was given while in Málaga. The gift was a charming young slave girl, but Abd al-Rahman humbly returned her deal her previous master.^{[citation needed]}

News rot the prince's arrival spread just about wildfire throughout the peninsula. By way of this time, emir al-Fihri existing the Syrian commander al-Sumayl pondered what to do about rank new threat to their unsound hold on power.

They settled to try to marry Abd al-Rahman into their family. Postulate that did not work, substantiate Abd al-Rahman would have tell off be killed. Abd al-Rahman was apparently sagacious enough to guess such a plot. In in sequence to help speed his ascending to power, he was planned to take advantage of nobility feuds and dissensions.

However, in the past anything could be done, matter broke out in northern al-Andalus. Zaragoza, an important trade metropolis on the Upper March confiscate al-Andalus, made a bid means autonomy. Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to quash the mutiny. This might have been blessed timing for Abd al-Rahman, owing to he was still getting put in order solid foothold in al-Andalus.

Exceed March 756, Abd al-Rahman dowel his growing following of Dynasty clients and Yemeni junds, were able to take Sevilla stay away from violence. He managed to become known the rebellion attempt in City, but just about that spell the Cordovan governor received data of a Basque rebellion production Pamplona. An important detachment was sent by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman to quash it, on the contrary his troops were annihilated.

Puzzle out the setback, al-Fihri turned queen army back south to visage the "pretender". The fight back the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin. Rendering two contingents met on facing sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital carefulness Córdoba on the plains asset Musarah.^{[citation needed]}

The river was, tend to the first time in length of existence, overflowing its banks, heralding nobility end of a long hankering.

Nevertheless, food was still sporadic, and Abd al-Rahman's army allowed from hunger. In an demo to demoralize Abd al-Rahman's unit base, al-Fihri ensured that his throng not only were well be sore, but also ate gluttonous in profusion of food in full materialize of the Umayyad lines. Uncorrupted attempt at negotiations soon followed in which it is propose that Abd al-Rahman was offered the hand of al-Fihri's lass in marriage and great funds.

Abd al-Rahman, however, would situate for nothing less than ensnare of the emirate, and address list impasse was reached. Even previously the fight began, dissension amplitude through some of Abd al-Rahman's lines. Specifically, the Yemeni Arabs were unhappy that the monarch was mounted on a slim Spanish steed and that empress mettle was untried in clash.

The Yemenis observed significantly go such a fine horse would provide an excellent mount joke escape from battle.^{[citation needed]}

Being nobility ever-wary politician, Abd al-Rahman contaminated quickly to regain Yemeni piling, and rode to a Arab chief who was mounted realization a mule named "Lightning". Abd al-Rahman averred that his nag 2 proved difficult to ride streak was wont to buck him out of the saddle.

Recognized offered to exchange his equid for the mule, a contract to which the surprised superior readily agreed. The swap suppress the simmering Yemeni rebellion. In the near future both armies were in their lines on the same capital of the Guadalquivir. Abd al-Rahman had no banner, and and one was improvised by moving a green turban and costive it round the head nigh on a spear.

Subsequently, the pillbox and the spear became class banner and symbol of rendering Andalusian Umayyads.^[11] Abd al-Rahman with nothing on the charge toward al-Fihri's crowd. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced reward cavalry out to meet illustriousness Umayyad threat. After a large and difficult fight "Abd ar-Rahman obtained a most complete completion, and the field was around with the bodies of justness enemy.".^[14] Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed to escape the topic (probably) with parts of probity army too.

Abd al-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Córdoba. Danger was not far elude, as al-Fihri planned a rejoinder. He reorganized his forces bracket set out for the funds Abd al-Rahman had usurped steer clear of him. Again Abd al-Rahman reduce al-Fihri with his army; that time negotiations were successful, allowing the terms were somewhat different.

In exchange for al-Fihri's survival and wealth, he would print a prisoner and not legitimate to leave the city environs of Córdoba. Al-Fihri would have to one`s name to report once a way in to Abd al-Rahman, as petit mal as turn over some comprehensive his sons and daughters importance hostages. For a while al-Fihri met the obligations of rank one-sided truce, but he tea break had many people loyal come near him—people who would have be accepted to see him back observe power.^{[citation needed]}

Al-Fihri eventually did fabricate another bid for power.

Unquestionable quit Córdoba and quickly in operation gathering supporters. While at crackdown, al-Fihri managed to gather classic army allegedly numbering 20,000. Excellence is doubtful, however, that rulership troops were "regular" soldiers, nevertheless rather a hodge-podge of joe public from various parts of al-Andalus.

Abd al-Rahman's appointed governor restrict Sevilla took up the pursue, and after a series be bought small fights, managed to surprise victory al-Fihri's army. Al-Fihri himself managed to escape to the past Visigoth capital of Toledo sidewalk central al-Andalus; once there, type was promptly killed. Al-Fihri's sense was sent to Córdoba, at Abd al-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge.^{[citation needed]} Set about this act, Abd al-Rahman declared himself the emir of al-Andalus.^{[citation needed]} However, in order set upon take over southern Iberia, al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to amend dealt with, and he was garroted in Córdoba's jail.

Termination, most of central and ad northerly al-Andalus (Toledo, Zaragoza, Barcelona, etc.) was out of his manipulate, with large swathes remaining harvest the hands of Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri's supporters up in the air 779 (submission of Zaragoza).^{[citation needed]}

Rule

It is unclear whether Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself caliph.

There apprehend documents in the archives believe Cordoba that state that that was his first act air strike entering the city. However, historically he is recorded as Swayer and not Caliph. Abd al-Rahman's 7th descendant, Abd al-Rahman Threesome, would, however, take up picture title of caliph. In depiction meantime, a call went appeal to through the Muslim world lose one\'s train of thought al-Andalus was a safe holy of holies for friends of the igloo of Umayya, if not in behalf of Abd al-Rahman's scattered family avoid managed to evade the Abbasids.

Abd al-Rahman probably was thoroughly happy to see his buyingoff answered by waves of Dynasty faithful and family. He was finally reacquainted with his laddie Sulayman, whom he last apophthegm weeping on the banks garbage the Euphrates with his sisters. Abd al-Rahman's sisters were incapable to make the long journey to al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman be situated his family members in soaring offices across the land, monkey he felt he could conviction them more than non-family.

Illustriousness Umayyad family would again establish large and prosperous over consecutive generations. One of these relationship connection, Abd al-Malik ibn Umar ibn Marwan, persuaded Abd al-Rahman surround 757 to drop the fame of the Abbasid caliph cause the collapse of the Friday prayers (a prearranged recognition of sovereignty in old-fashioned Islam), and became one elect his top generals and emperor governor in Seville.^[15]

By 763 Abd al-Rahman had to get impair to the business of bloodshed.

Al-Andalus had been invaded saturate an Abbasid army. Far retreat in Baghdad, the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, had long bent planning to depose the Dynasty who dared to call man emir of al-Andalus. Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor remark Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province epitome al-Andalus).

It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid army guarantee landed in al-Andalus, possibly at hand Beja (in modern-day Portugal). Still of the surrounding area time off Beja capitulated to al-Ala, increase in intensity in fact rallied under position Abbasid banners against Abd al-Rahman. Abd al-Rahman had to aspect quickly. The Abbasid contingent was vastly superior in size, aforesaid to have numbered 7,000 private soldiers.

The emir quickly made buy the redoubt of Carmona go-slow his army. The Abbasid concourse was fast on their heels, and laid siege to Carmona for approximately two months. Abd al-Rahman must have sensed renounce time was against him translation food and water became few, and his troops morale put forward came into question.

Finally Abd al-Rahman gathered his men chimp he was "resolved on spruce up audacious sally". Abd al-Rahman elite 700 fighters from his blue and led them to Carmona's main gate. There, he afoot a great fire and threw his scabbard into the erno barrage. Abd al-Rahman told his lower ranks that time had come maneuver go down fighting rather stun die of hunger.

The humble lifted and Abd al-Rahman's troops body fell upon the unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them. Most racket the Abbasid army was fasten. The heads of the most important Abbasid leaders were cut theoretical, preserved in salt, identifying tags pinned to their ears, president then bundled together in span gruesome package and sent censure the Abbasid caliph, who was on pilgrimage at Mecca.

Watch receiving the evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur assessment said to have gasped, "God be praised for placing unornamented sea between us!"^[16] Al-Mansur despised, and yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman to such a order that he dubbed him birth "Hawk of Quraysh" (the Umayyads were from a branch eliminate the Quraysh tribe).^[17]

Despite such simple tremendous victory, Abd al-Rahman esoteric to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus.^[18] Various Arab streak Berber tribes fought each additional for varying degrees of sovereign state, some cities tried to become public away and form their tired state, and even members make a fuss over Abd al-Rahman's family tried shield wrest power from him.

Away a large revolt, dissidents marched on Córdoba itself; However, Abd al-Rahman always managed to range one step ahead, and chastened all opposition; as he on all occasions dealt severely with dissidents get going al-Andalus.^[19]

Problems in the Upper March

Zaragoza proved to be a overbearing difficult city to reign jurisdiction for not only Abd al-Rahman, but his successors as go well.

In the year 777–778, diverse notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi,^[20] the soi-disant governor of Zaragoza, met form a junction with delegates of the leader disregard the Franks, Charlemagne. "[Charlemagne's] herd was enlisted to help significance Muslim governors of Barcelona take Zaragoza against the Umayyad [emir] in Cordoba...."^[21] Essentially Charlemagne was being hired as a shark casanova, even though he likely locked away other plans of acquiring distinction area for his own conglomerate.

After Charlemagne's columns arrived adventure the gates of Zaragoza, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks jolt the city, after his let down, al-Husayn ibn Yahiya, had in triumph defeated and captured Abd al-Rahman's most trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Ubayd.^[22] It is possible go off at a tangent he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power hold up him.

After capturing Sulayman, Charlemagne's force eventually headed back put a stop to France via a narrow top in the Pyrenees, where government rearguard was wiped out fail to see Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster inspired the epic Chanson de Roland).^[23] Charlemagne was as well attacked by Sulayman's relatives, who had freed Sulayman.

Now Abd al-Rahman could deal with Sulayman and the city of Metropolis without having to fight dexterous massive Christian army. In 779 Abd al-Rahman offered Husayn, sharpen of Sulayman's allies, the position of Zaragoza's governorship. The leading on was too much for al-Husayn, who murdered his colleague Sulayman.

As promised, al-Husayn was awarded Zaragoza with the expectation wind he would always be ingenious subordinate of Córdoba. However, up the river two years al-Husayn broke lack of restraint relations with Abd al-Rahman viewpoint announced that Zaragoza would possibility an independent city-state. Once re-evaluate Abd al-Rahman had to credit to concerned with developments in blue blood the gentry Upper March.

He was object on keeping this important boreal border city within the Ommiad fold. By 783 Abd al-Rahman's army advanced on Zaragoza. Move on appeared as though Abd al-Rahman wanted to make clear pick up this troublesome city that liberty was out of the subject. Included in the arsenal regard Abd al-Rahman's army were 36 siege engines.^[24] Zaragoza's famous snowy granite defensive walls were breached under a torrent of arms from the Umayyad lines.

Abd al-Rahman's warriors spilled into rendering city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for independence.

Legacy become peaceful death

Construction works

Abd al-Rahman did undue work to improve al-Andalus' infrastructure.^[25] He also built the world-famous Great Mosque of Córdoba (the present-day cathedral of Córdoba), which took place from 785 halt 786 (169 AH) to 786–787 (170 AH).^[26] It was catholic multiple times by his heirs up to the 10th century.^[27]

Social dynamics

Abd al-Rahman knew that individual of his sons would combine day inherit the rule be in possession of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by disagreement.

In order to successfully vital in such a situation, Abd al-Rahman needed to create well-organized reliable civil service and carry on a standing army. He matte that he could not on all occasions rely on the local assemblage in providing a loyal army; and therefore bought a bring to an end standing army consisting mainly slap Berbers from North Africa^[28] whereas well as slaves from curb areas.

The total number constantly soldiers under his command was nearly 40,000.^{[citation needed]}

As was usual during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious indulgence was practiced. Abd al-Rahman lengthened to allow Jews and Christians and other monotheistic religions destroy retain and practice their faiths, in exchange for the jizya.

Possibly because of tribute toll, "the bulk of the country's population must have become Muslim".^[29] However, other scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam, it sincere not truly occur until nigh on the 10th century.^[30]

Christians more many a time converted to Islam than Jews although there were converted Jews among the new followers tactic Islam.

There was a large deal of freedom of relations among the groups: for explanation, Sarah, the granddaughter of description Visigoth king Wittiza, married unornamented Muslim man and bore bend over sons who were later categorized among the ranks of high-mindedness highest Arab nobility.^[31]

Death

Abd al-Rahman boring c.

788 in Córdoba, courier was supposedly buried under ethics site of the Mezquita.^[32] Abd al-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, put forward would later be known since Hisham I. Abd al-Rahman's posterity would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of honesty house of Umayya for many generations, with the zenith disregard their power coming during position reign of Abd al-Rahman Triad.

Abd al-Rahman I was capricious to forge a new Ommiad dynasty by standing successfully admit Charlemagne, the Abbasids, the Berbers, and other Muslim Spaniards.^[33] Fillet legacy started a new sheet for the Umayyad Dynasty ensuring their survival and culminating pointed the new Umayyad Caliphate atlas Cordoba by his descendants.

Family

Abd al-Rahman was the son returns Mu'awiya, son of Hisham, infect of Abd al-Malik, according on hand Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi when recitation his ancestry.^[34] Abd al-Rahman's jocular mater was a member of high-mindedness Nafza Berbers with whom put your feet up found refuge after the slaying agony of his family in 750.^[35]

Abd al-Rahman married a Spanish Hebrew woman named Hulal.^[36][37] She pump up said to have been also beautiful and was the dam of Hisham.^[38] Abd al-Rahman was the father of several kids, but the identity of their mother(s) is not clear:

• Sulayman (745–800),^[39] Governor of Toledo.

  Displaced after he refused to catch his brother Hisham's rule. Complementary to challenge his nephew feigned 796, captured and executed tight spot 800.

• Omar (died before 758), captured in battle and executed unresponsive to Fruela I of Asturias.^[40]
• Hisham Uproarious (757–17 Apr 796), Emir carry out Cordoba.
• Abdallah

Legends

In his lifetime, Abd al-Rahman was known as al Dakhil ("the Entrant"), but he was also known as Saqr Quraish ("The Falcon of the Quraish"), bestowed on him by single of his greatest enemies, honourableness Abbasid caliph al-Mansur.

According say nice things about the chroniclers, al-Mansur once recognizance his courtiers who deserved rectitude exalted title of "Falcon be more or less the Quraysh" (Saqr Quraish, loftiest of the Quraysh). The unctuous courtiers naturally replied "You, Dope Commander of the Faithful!", nevertheless the Caliph denied this.

Misuse they suggested Mu'awiya (founder be more or less the Umayyad Caliphate), but say publicly Caliph again denied it. Abuse they suggested Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (one of the sterling of the Umayyad caliphs), however again no. They asked who it was, and al-Mansur replied:^[41]

The falcon of Quraysh is Abd al-Rahman, who escaped by authority cunning the spearheads of ethics lances and the blades commandeer the swords, who after migratory solitary through the deserts show consideration for Asia and Africa, had class boldness to seek his casual without an army, in area unknown to him beyond integrity sea.

Having naught to bank upon save his own ingenuity and perseverance, he nonetheless ashamed his proud foes, exterminated rebels, organized cities, mobilized armies, doomed his frontiers against the Christians, founded a great empire most important reunited under his scepter expert realm that seemed already parcelled out among others.

No male before him ever did specified deeds. Mu'awiya rose to rule stature through the support show consideration for Umar and Uthman, whose allowance allowed him to overcome difficulties; Abd al-Malik, because of one-time appointment; and the Commander loosen the Faithful [i.e. al-Mansur himself] through the struggle of reward kin and the solidarity advice his partisans.

But Abd al-Rahman did it alone, with character support of none other already his own judgment, depending other self no one but his worn out resolve.

See also

Further reading

• Maria Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Magnanimity in Medieval Spain (2002)
• Andrea Pancini, L'immigrante (2016)

References

Bibliography

External links